English Phonemes, Grammar, and Sentence Structure

English Phonemes

Vowels : Short : /æ/ |a| “hat” /ə/ |ah| “ago” /e/ |e| “ten” /ɪ/ |i| “his” /ɒ/ |o| “hot” /ʊ/ |u| “put” /ʌ/ |uh| “but”	Long : /ɑː/ |ar| “car” /iː/ |ee| “bee” /ɜː/ |er| “her” /uː/ |oo| “too” /ɔː/ |or| “saw”	Dipthongs : /eə/ |air| “air” /eɪ/ |ay| “say” /ɪə/ |ear| “ear” /aɪ/ |iy| “buy” /əʊ/ |oh| “so” /aʊ/ |ow| “now” /ɔɪ/ |oy| “boy” /ʊə/ |ure| “pure”
Consonants : /h/ |h| “hat” /l/ |l| “look” /m/ |m| “mat” /n/ |n| “no” /ŋ/ |ng| “sing” /r/ |r| “read” /w/ |w| “want” /j/ |y| “yes”	Voiced : /b/ |b| “book” /d/ |d| “day” /ɡ/ |g| “go” /dʒ/ |j| “jam” /ʒ/ |JH| “vision” /ð/ |ZH| “that” /v/ |v| “very” /z/ |z| “zoo”	Unvoiced : /tʃ/ |ch| “chair” /f/ |f| “four” /k/ |k| “cup” /p/ |p| “pen” /t/ |t| “tea” /θ/ |th| “thin” /s/ |s| “sun” /ʃ/ |sh| “shine”

English Grammar

There are nine parts of speech in English grammar:

• [1] Nouns

  A Noun is a person, place, thing, or idea; “The ‘dog’ barked.”

  Here are nine noun types found in English Grammar:

  • [1.1] Common Nouns
    A Common Noun is a general name for a person, place, thing, or idea; “The ‘dog’ barked.”
  • [1.2] Proper Nouns
    A Proper Noun is a specific name for a person, place, thing, or idea; “‘John’ is my friend.”
  • [1.3] Concrete Nouns
    A Concrete Noun is a noun that can be physically touched; “The ‘table’ is made of wood.”
  • [1.4] Abstract Nouns
    A Abstract Noun is a noun that cannot be physically touched; “The ‘love’ between them was strong.”
  • [1.5] Collective Nouns
    A Collective Noun is a noun that refers to a group of people or things; “The ‘team’ won the game.”
  • [1.6] Countable Nouns
    A Countable Noun is a noun that can be counted; “I have two ‘books’.”
  • [1.7] Uncountable Nouns
    An Uncountable Noun is a noun that cannot be counted; “I need some ‘water’.”
  • [1.8] Possessive Nouns
    A Possessive Noun is a noun that shows ownership; “‘Sara's’ car is red.”
  • [1.9] Compound Nouns
    A Compound Noun is a noun made up of two or more words; “Toothbrush” and “snowman” are examples of compound nouns.
• [2] Pronouns

  A Pronoun is a word that replaces a noun; “‘She’ is happy.”

  Here are eight pronoun types found in English Grammar:

  • [2.1] Personal Pronouns
    A Personal Pronoun refers to a specific person or thing; “I”, “you”, “he”, “she”, “it”, “we”, “they”.
  • [2.2] Possessive Pronouns
    A Possessive Pronoun shows ownership; “mine”, “yours”, “his”, “hers”, “its”, “ours”, “theirs”.
  • [2.3] Reflexive Pronouns
    A Reflexive Pronoun refers back to the subject of a sentence; “myself”, “yourself”, “himself”, “herself”, “itself”, “ourselves”, “themselves”.
  • [2.4] Demonstrative Pronouns
    A Demonstrative Pronoun points out a specific person or thing; “this”, “that”, “these”, “those”.
  • [2.5] Interrogative Pronouns
    An Interrogative Pronoun used to ask questions; “who”, “whom”, “whose”, “what”, “which”.
  • [2.6] Relative Pronouns
    A Relative Pronoun used to connect clauses or phrases; “who”, “whom”, “whose”, “that”, “which”.
  • [2.7] Indefinite Pronouns
    An Indefinite Pronoun refers to an unspecified person or thing; “anyone”, “someone”, “everyone”.
  • [2.8] Reciprocal Pronouns
    A Reciprocal Pronoun used to indicate that two or more people are connected to an action; “John and Mary love ‘each other’.”
• [3] Verbs

  A Verb is an action word that tells what happens in a sentence; “I ‘run’ every day.”

  Here are eight verb types found in English Grammar:

  • [3.1] Action Verbs
    An Action Verb expresses physical or mental action; “run”, “swim”, “think”.
  • [3.2] Linking Verbs
    A Linking Verb connects the subject of a sentence with a noun or adjective that describes or identifies it; “is”, “was”, “were”.
  • [3.3] Auxiliary Verbs
    An Auxiliary Verb used to form verb tenses, voice, and mood; “be”, “do”, “have”.
  • [3.4] Modal Verbs
    A Modal Verb used to express ability, possibility, permission, or obligation; “can”, “could”, “may”, “might”, “must”, “shall”, “should”, “will”, “would”.
  • [3.5] Incomplete Verbs
    An Incomplete Verb does not express a complete thought; “go ahead and…”, “if only…”, “as long as…”.
  • [3.6] Infinitive Verbs
    An Infinitive Verb expresses an action or state without reference to any subject; “to run”, “to swim”.
  • [3.7] Finite Verbs
    A Finite Verb shows tense, person, and number; “I am swimming.”
  • [3.8] Non-Finite Verbs
    A Non-Finite Verb does not show tense, person, or number; “I like to swim.”.
• [4] Adjectives

  An Adjective is a word that describes nouns and pronouns; “The ‘red’ car is fast.”

  Here are eight adjective types found in English grammar:

  • [4.1] Descriptive Adjectives
    A Descriptive Adjective describes a noun or pronoun; “red”, “happy”, “big”.
  • [4.2] Quantitative Adjectives
    A Quantitative Adjective describes the quantity of a noun or pronoun; “one”, “two”, “three”.
  • [4.3] Demonstrative Adjectives
    A Demonstrative Adjective points out a specific noun or pronoun; “this”, “that”, “these”.
  • [4.4] Possessive Adjectives
    A Possessive Adjective shows ownership of a noun or pronoun; “my”, “your”, “his”.
  • [4.5] Interrogative Adjectives
    An Interrogative Adjective used to ask questions about a noun or pronoun; “which”, “what”, “whose”.
  • [4.6] Indefinite Adjectives
    An Indefinite Adjective refers to any member of a group; “any”, “some”, “many”.
  • [4.7] Comparative Adjectives
    A Comparative Adjective compares two nouns or pronouns; “bigger”, “smaller”.
  • [4.8] Superlative Adjectives
    A Superlative Adjective compares three or more nouns or pronouns; “biggest”, “smallest”.
• [5] Adverbs

  An Adverb is a word that describes verbs, adjectives, and even other adverbs; “He runs ‘quickly’.”

  Here are six adverb types found in English grammar:

  • [5.1] Adverbs of Manner
    An Adverb of Manner describes how an action is done; “quickly”, “slowly”.
  • [5.2] Adverbs of Place
    An Adverb of Place describes where an action is done; “here”, “there”.
  • [5.3] Adverbs of Time
    An Adverb of Time describes when an action is done; “now”, “later”.
  • [5.4] Adverbs of Frequency
    An Adverb of Frequency describes how often an action is done; “always”, “never”.
  • [5.5] Adverbs of Degree
    An Adverb of Degree describes the degree or intensity of an action; “very”, “extremely”.
  • [5.6] Interrogative Adverbs
    An Interrogative Adverb is used to ask questions about an action; “when”, “where”, “how”.
• [6] Prepositions

  A Preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence; “The book is ‘on’ the table.”

  Here are four preposition types found in English grammar:

  • [6.1] Simple Prepositions
    A Simple Preposition shows the relationship between a noun/pronoun and another word in a sentence; “in”, “on”, “at”.
  • [6.2] Double Prepositions
    Double Preposition consists of two simple prepositions used together; “into”, “onto”.
  • [6.3] Compound Prepositions
    A Compound Preposition consists of two or more words; “according to”, “in front of”.
  • [6.4] Participle Prepositions
    A Participle Preposition ends with “-ing” or “-ed”; “excluding”, “including”.
• [7] Conjunctions

  A Conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses; “I like apples ‘and’ oranges.”

  Here are four conjunction types found in English grammar:

  • [7.1] Coordinating Conjunctions
    A Coordinating Conjunction joins two independent clauses; “and”, “but”, “or”.
  • [7.2] Subordinating Conjunctions
    A Subordinating Conjunction joins a dependent clause to an independent clause; “although”, “because”, “if”.
  • [7.3] Correlative Conjunctions
    A Correlative Conjunction is used in pairs to join words or phrases; “either…or…”, “neither…nor…”.
  • [7.4] Adverbial Conjunctions
    An Adverbial Conjunction is used to connect independent clauses; “however”, “therefore”.
• [8] Articles and Determiners

  Articles and Determiners are words that come before nouns to indicate whether they refer to something specific or something general; “I want ‘the’ apple.”

  Here are six article and determiner types found in English grammar:

  • [8.1] Definite Article
    The Definite Article is used to refer to a specific noun; “the”.
  • [8.2] Indefinite Article
    An Indefinite Article is used to refer to a non-specific noun; “a”, “an”.
  • [8.3] Demonstrative Determiner
    A Demonstrative Determiner is used to indicate a specific noun; “this”, “that”.
  • [8.4] Possessive Determiner
    A Possessive Determiner is used to show ownership of a noun; “my”, “your”.
  • [8.5] Quantitative Determiner
    A Quantitative Determiner is used to indicate quantity of a noun; “few”, “many”.
  • [8.6] Interrogative Determiner
    An Interrogative Determiner is used to ask questions about a noun; “which”, “what”.
• [9] Interjections

  An Interjection is a word or phrase used to express strong emotion; “Wow! That’s amazing!”

  Here are four interjection types found in English grammar:

  • [9.1] Greeting Interjection
    A Greeting Interjection is used to greet someone; “hello”, “hi”.
  • [9.2] Exclamation Interjection
    An Exclamation Interjection is used to express strong emotions; “wow”, “oh no”.
  • [9.3] Approval Interjection
    An Approval Interjection is used to show approval; “great”, “fantastic”.
  • [9.4] Disapproval Interjection
    A Disapproval Interjection is used to show disapproval; “ugh”, “yuck”.

English Sentence Structure

In English grammar, sentence structure refers to the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence.

A word is the smallest unit of language that can be uttered in isolation with objective or practical meaning.

A phrase is a group of words that lacks either a subject or a predicate or both.

A subject is a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that tells us what the sentence is about.

The predicate is the part of the sentence that contains the verb or verb phrase and tells us what the subject is doing. Here’s an example:

• Subject  : “the cat”
• Predicate: “sat on the mat”

The object of a sentence is the noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb. It answers the question “what” or “whom” after an action verb. Here is an example:

• “I ate an apple.” In this sentence, “apple” is the object of the verb “ate”.

Phrases can function as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or prepositions in a sentence.

A clause is a group of words that contains both a subject and a predicate. Clauses can function as independent sentences or as part of a larger sentence.

An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. It can stand alone as a sentence. Here’s an example:

• “I love coffee.”

A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. It cannot stand alone as a sentence. Here’s an example:

• “When I wake up in the morning,”

Basic Sentence Structure

There are four basic sentence structures in English:

• A simple sentence is a sentence with just one independent clause (also called a main clause): “Judy laughed.”
• A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses: “Judy laughed and Jimmy cried.”
• A complex sentence contains an independent clause and at least one dependent clause: “Jimmy cried when Judy laughed.”
• A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause: “When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page because he lost it.”

Here’s an example of how complex sentences can be reduced to constituent phrases and grammatical parts:

• Complex Sentence: “Although I like to go camping, I haven’t had the time to go lately.”
• Reduced Sentence: “Although liking camping, no time lately.”

Syntax

Syntax is the set of rules that governs the structure of sentences in a language. It refers to the way words and phrases are arranged to form sentences. Correct syntax examples include word choice, matching number and tense, and placing words and phrases in the right order.

For example, in English grammar, a typical sentence follows the syntax of subject-verb-object sequence. “Tom broke the bat” is an example of this syntax. Here, “Tom” is the subject, “broke” is the verb, and “bat” is the object.

There are two main types of syntax: phrasal syntax and sentential syntax.

Phrasal syntax is concerned with the order of words within phrases and how they relate to each other. For example, in the phrase “the big red ball”, “big” and “red” are adjectives that modify “ball”. The order of these adjectives is important because it affects the meaning of the phrase.

Here are some examples of phrasal syntax in English:

• Adjective Phrase    : “big red ball”
• Verb Phrase         : “go away”
• Adverb Phrase       : “very quickly”
• Prepositional Phrase: “in the park”

Sentential syntax is the study of how words are arranged in sentences. It is concerned with the structure of sentences and how words are combined to form meaningful phrases and clauses.

Here are some examples of sentential syntax in English:

• Simple sentence     : “The cat sat on the mat”.
• Compound sentence   : “The cat sat on the mat, and the dog barked at the mailman”.
• Complex sentence    : “Although the cat sat on the mat, the dog barked at the mailman”.

About

• Co-written by: “Bing Chat”
• Directed by  : “Dave Auguste”
• Published    : “2023/07/06 07:21 (BST)”
• Last updated : “2023/07/07 16:01 (BST)”
• Links        :
  What is a phoneme?
  https://www.theschoolrun.com/what-phoneme
  
  
  Using Phonemes in the Classroom: / haʊ / How?
  https://jadeblueefl.wordpress.com/pronunciation/using-phonemes-in-the-classroom-haʊ-how/
  
  
  English phonology
  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_phonology
  
  
  A Beginners Guide To HTML Elements
  https://daveauguste.neocities.org/A_Beginners_Guide_To_HTML_Elements.html
  
  
  Regular Expressions in JavaScript
  https://daveauguste.neocities.org/Regular_Expressions_in_JavaScript.html
  
  
  Math For The Masses
  https://daveauguste.neocities.org/math_for_the_masses.html